Customer Complaint Behavior

Consumers’ protest conduct. Scientific categorization, typology and determinants: Towards a uni? ed philosophy Received (in amended structure): sixteenth August, 2003 Dominique Crie ? is Professor of advertising at the University of Sciences and Technologies of Lille, in the Business Administration Department (IAE). He deals with the postgraduate certificate course: measurable specialization for advertising databases. He is likewise a showcasing advisor and analyst, individual from the Association Francaise de Marketing and of the Societe Francaise de Statistiques. ? ? ? ?His examination centers around the client relationship, especially according to fulfillment, reliability and maintenance. Conceptual Complaint conduct is a lot of purchaser disappointment reactions. It is an unequivocal articulation of disappointment, yet disappointment is just a single determinant of this conduct. Grumbling conduct can be broke down as different sorts of reaction yet in addition as a procedu re. This paper proposes a coordinated system of the different hypotheses of grievance conduct driving toward a uni? ed philosophy and to deciphering it from another point of view. Dominique Crie ?IAE de Lille, 104, Avenue du Peuple Belge, 59 043 Lille Cedex, ? France. Tel: 33 (0)3 20 12 34 64; Fax: 33 (0)3 20 12 34 48; E-mail: [emailâ protected] com INTRODUCTION This paper audits an idea still generally once in a while considered by organizations: purchaser protest conduct. Inside the structure of the relationship worldview, grievance conduct is a ground-breaking signal which organizations should consider. From one viewpoint, it gives an association a last opportunity to hold the client, if the association responds properly, then again it is an authentic and moral act toward the consumer.Generally, yet not solely, objection conduct is one of the reactions to saw disappointment in the post-buy stage. In the ? rst segment of the paper, a scientific categorization of reaction styles u tilized by dissatis? ed shoppers is proposed. At that point purchaser objection conduct (CCB) is de? ned and arranged with respect to these different kinds of reaction. At long last, in the wake of grouping ‘complainers’ and ‘non-complainers’, this paper attempts to find the principle measurements of the CCB scientific classification through a structuralisation of its determinants inside a diachronic methodology †the goal being to propose a clari? d applied and hypothetical structure to coordinate the enormous assortment of takes a shot at the subject. The decision features a blend of this reasonable structure with respect to a uni? ed cosmology. A TAXONOMY OF THE TYPES OF RESPONSE TO DISSATISFACTION A dissatis? ed customer may embrace a few kinds of reaction, classi? cation of which might be sensitive. The scientific categorization of reactions ? rst requires a differentiation between the thoughts of reaction and of activity to be built up. Surely, th e term ‘action’ suggests a very speci? c conduct, 60Database Marketing and Customer Strategy Management Vol. 11, 1, 60â€79 Henry Stewart Publications 1741â€2439 (2003) Consumers’ grumbling conduct Table 1: A scientific categorization of the kinds of reaction to disappointment Towards enitity Response type Behavioral Public (Sellers, producers, of? cial associations, affiliations, equity) Complaint Legal activity Return of the thing Request for fix No activity, with or without modi? cation of the disposition Forget or pardon Private (Family, companions, relations) Word of mouth Boycott/leaving Non-conduct hile the term ‘response’ contains a few modalities which are not only social, outstandingly change of mentality or inertia. This differentiation builds up a ? rst measurement. The second is spoken to by the substances towards which reactions are coordinated: the open one incorporates merchants, producers and purchaser affiliations or legitimate activity; the private one incorporates family, companions or family members. At last, reactions show various powers as per the two past measurements. Reactions may differ from idleness to lawful activity †either essentially to communicate disappointment or to get fix or pay (Table 1).The heterogeneity of these different reaction types might be somewhat clarified by the reason and power of disappointment and by the nature and significance of the item or administration of concern. Then again, customers may blend or associate a few reaction types for a similar disappointment. This angle is moderately ignored by the writing, in spite of the fact that Hirschman1 noticed that objection and exit are not two symmetric components: when a client leaves the organization, he/she loses ‘the opportunity’ to utilize their voice, while on the off chance that he/she utilizes the grumbling ? rst, he/she is in every case allowed to leave later if the grumbling doesn't succeed.So exi t can fill in for and supplement to an objection. The more costly and complex the item, the more customers are slanted to start open activity, anyway the more noteworthy probability is that they will remain inert or pick private activity. 2â€4 The creators of the ? rst stream of writing are various, however Hirschman’s work stays standard in the conceptualisation of reactions to disappointment through the model ‘Exit, Voice and Loyalty’. Exit is a functioning and ruinous reaction to disappointment, showed by a break of the relationship with the article (brand, item, retailer, provider. . ). The verbal reaction (Voice) is a productive reaction with a desire for change in an organisation’s practices, arrangements and reactions; it is described by protests towards companions, buyer affiliations and applicable associations. The third kind of reaction (Loyalty) has two perspectives, productive and uninvolved, the individual trusting that things will develop in a positive manner. For Brown and Swartz,5 it is particularly an inclination of weakness that is the reason for this social unwaveringness. ‘The disregard of the occurrence and the intrinsic inactivity’ can, be that as it may, be considered as proof for loyalty.Research intended to clarify the different sorts of reaction to disappointment is restricted. Scales have been made for this reason by Day et al. 6 yet they are without methodological and Henry Stewart Publications 1741-2439 (2003) Vol. 11, 1, 60â€79 Database Marketing and Customer Strategy Management 61 Crie ? psychometric approval. Just Bearden and Teel7 have researched the different sorts of reaction utilizing a Guttman scale. The information are gathered from ? ve things of expanding force: (1) loved ones admonition, (2) return of the thing as well as protest, (3) contact with the producer, (4) contact with shopper affiliations or of? ial associations and (5) lawful activity, prominently when the client doesn't acquire fulfillment with the vender. 8 Empirically approved, this scale doesn't, be that as it may, consider the non-social reactions featured by past research, and a solitary thing identifies with private activity. 9 Of a fairly developmental nature, each thing contributes in its own specific manner to the advancement of the force of the reactions. Day10 con? rms the significance of the utilization of such a scale. The primary point of this scientific classification is to explain the different reactions a dissatis? d customer could use, so as to find all the more decisively those which the organization can watch legitimately. Characterizing CONSUMER COMPLAINT Behavior Among the different kinds of reaction to disappointment, some of them all the more direcly concern CCB. The ? rst calculated base of this wonder concerning post-buy was expressed toward the finish of the 1970s. 11 Jacoby and Jaccard12 de? ne it as ‘an activity started by the person who involves a corresp ondence of something adverse to an item (administration), either towards the organization or towards a third entity’. For Day et al. 13 it is the outcome ‘of a given demonstration of utilization, following which the customer is gone up against with an encounter creating a high disappointment, of suf? cient sway with the goal that it is, neither compared mentally, nor rapidly forgotten’. Fornell and Wernerfelt14 consider that the grievance is ‘an endeavor of the client to change an inadmissible situation’. At last, Singh15 recommends that this conduct, enacted at an enthusiastic or wistful level by an apparent disappointment, is a piece of the more broad system of reactions to disappointment which comprises of two measurements (see additionally Day and Landon16).The ? rst measurement, grounded totally or to some extent in activities started by the buyer (passing on articulation of his/her disappointment not exclusively to the dealer, yet in addition t o outsiders, companions or relations17,18), is conduct however doesn't really involve activity towards the organization; it is basically inside this measurement that CCB ought to be thought of. The subsequent measurement alludes to nonappearance of activity by the purchaser, for instance when he/she overlooks a generative scene of disappointment. 19,20 along these lines, CCB must, rather, be considered as a procedure, ie its ? al indication doesn't straightforwardly rely upon its starting elements yet on assessment of the circumstance by the shopper and of its development after some time. In this way, CCB truly establishes a subset of every single imaginable reaction to saw disappointment around a buy scene, during utilization or during ownership of the great (or administration). Truth be told, the idea of ‘complaint behaviour’ incorporates a progressively broad phrasing which likewise includes the thoughts of dissent, correspondence (verbal) or proposal to third partie s21 and even the idea of boycott.This thought is adroitly embedded in a lot of express showings, by and large towards the vender, of a consumer’s disappointment. It appears to be then that it is important to remember for the de? nition of CCB a lot of reactions, heterogeneous in their objectives †the investigation of this conduct not being distinct from comprehension of all th

Personal and Professional Ethic Free Essays

1. Rundown 2 instances of legitimate issues influencing social insurance and portray how you decided your decisions to be lawful issues. 2. We will compose a custom article test on Individual and Professional Ethic or on the other hand any comparable subject just for you Request Now Give 2 instances of moral issues influencing social insurance and depict how you decided your decisions to be moral issues. 3. Give 2 instances of good issues influencing human services and portray how you decided your decisions to be good issues. 4. Depict the effect your very own morals may have on your training as a medicinal services proficient. 5. Rundown 3 thoughts that you have for keeping your own and expert morals discrete: . How does assorted variety (ethnic, social and social) assume a job in giving patient consideration to your picked calling? Unit 9 Project Questions: Part II (NOTE: you may need to allude to section 3 as well as Unit 2 for this area) 7. What is the name of the expert association identified with your picked profession? (NOTE: a rundown of expert associations can be found in the Code of Ethics and Professional Organizations module in the Reading area of Unit 2) 8. In what manner will your expert Code of Ethics help to direct you in settling on choices at w ork? NOTE: a connect to your Code of Ethics can be found in the Code of Ethics and Professional Organizations module in the Reading area of Unit 2) 9. How does your expert Code of Ethics vary from the American Medical Association Code of Ethics? 10. Does your expert association offer a credentialing test for your profession? Assuming this is the case, what is the name of the accreditation you can get after breezing through the test? 11. For most partnered wellbeing experts, a confirmation can be liked however is discretionary. Why would that be? 12. Name two medicinal services experts in which a permit would be required to rehearse. Step by step instructions to refer to Personal and Professional Ethic, Essay models

8 Lesson Plans to Promote Lifelong Learning

8 Lesson Plans to Promote Lifelong Learning A little while ago, the European Parliament recommended a list of 8 key competencies which they believe all educational institutions should provide their students with, to promote lifelong learning. These key competencies consist of knowledge, skills, and attitudes which are central to the development of well-rounded children, young people and eventually adults. It’s hoped that taking a cross-curricular approach, known as phenomenon-based learning, will support the development of a cohesive and engaged society, made up of active and knowledgeable citizens. It’s a big aim, but across the world, education specialists are getting on board with this approach to lifelong learning. Promoting Lifelong Learning in  8 Lesson Ideas Finland isn’t the first country to recognize the value of ‘lifelong learning’ but  Finland is the first country to base their teaching curriculum around the eight key competencies. Instead of focusing on classic academic subjects, like History or English, Finnish schools will now structure lessons around broader, cross-cutting and interdisciplinary “topics”. Speaking on why Finland decided to make this shift towards lifelong learning, Pasi Sahlberg, Visiting Professor at the Graduate School of Education, Harvard University, said: “educators in Finland think, quite correctly, that schools should teach what young people need in their lives…What Finnish youth need more than before are more integrated knowledge and skills about real world issues” As Professor Sahlberg explains, the key competencies don’t focus on knowledge acquisition and test score results, but on developing skills for longer term learning, with an emphasis on social and emotional development. So there’s a run down of the theories behind the key lifelong learning competencies. For teachers looking to put these theories into practice, here are the eight key competences with an accompanying lesson idea for each.  This way, you’re able to take this teaching directly to your classroom, using mind mapping: 1.  Communication in the mother tongue Communication skills are hugely important in enabling children and young people to both express themselves and develop positive relationships. They’re also important for employability.    A  UK study found that 98% of business leaders think communication and teamwork skills are necessary for people entering the workplace.  However, only 32% believe that schools are doing enough to equip pupils with these lifelong learning skills. This competence covers written and reading comprehension too. It’s been found that mind mapping offers a more natural way for the brain to absorb and comprehend information, in comparison to linear text. To  develop the language skills of students, try using this reading comprehension template map with students. This mind map will help to break down the different aspects of a book you’re studying. You could create a similar mind map collaboratively in class, to develop your students’ spoken communication skills too. To use any template mind maps within this article, simply sign into MindMeister (or sign up free) and maximize the map via the ‘map actions’ icon. Once maximized, click again on the ‘map actions’ icon and choose to clone the map. From there, you can edit or embellish the topics to make the map suitable for your classrooms age and stage. 2.  Communication in foreign languages As explained previously in the MindMeister series, How to Learn A Second Language with Mind Maps Part 1 and Part 2, mind mapping is the ideal way to develop proficiency in a foreign language. By presenting information in a visual way, mind mapping has been found to improve memory retention. As a result, mind mapping makes the lifelong learning skill of acquiring a second language easier, faster and more fun. For your next language lesson, set your students the task of creating a mind map on learning conversational vocab at their level. Ask them to create a topic for each key category such as food, clothing, directions, shopping etc. and try including visual cues that students can then associate with the new words. Acquiring foreign languages will hopefully be something your students will go on to do throughout their lifetime. By providing them with the skills to learn foreign vocab now, youll subsequently provide them with a lifelong learning skill, which they can go on to utilize in both the workplace and for holidays abroad. Your browser is not able to display frames. Please visit German Food Vocabulary on MindMeister. Introduce mind mapping in your classroom! with MindMeister with MindMeister 3. Mathematical competence and basic competences in science and technology Science and maths can be unfairly branded by students as boring subjects. However, it’s really important that students leave school with at least a basic level of arithmetic to navigate everyday situations. Similarly, students must develop the lifelong learning skill to analyze studies and methodologies. With the breadth of inaccurate news available online, its essential that students are able to critically assess whether information is neutral and well-grounded. If you’re trying to make science and maths seem more fun, try asking students to create their next lab report and methodology study via a mind map. You could provide them with the template below or ask them to create their own from scratch. Your browser is not able to display frames. Please visit Lab Report on MindMeister. 4. Digital competence The development of technology and access to the internet has brought huge opportunities to our children and young people but has also brought threats. As a result, this competency is not only about developing the Information and Communication Technology (ICT) skills of students. Its also about providing them with the skills and knowledge to be responsible and critical internet users. By utilizing mind mapping as a digital learning tool, you will develop your students’ understanding and abilities in ICT. This will enable students to not only create mind maps  but to learn to collaborate with class mates on their maps and create engaging presentations. In order to develop your students’ understanding of how to use the internet critically and responsibly, try using ChildNet’s free online safety teaching resources. Ask students to create a collaborative mind map on the projector focusing on one of the topics mentioned. For example, they could present on how we should think carefully about what we share publicly over social media channels. Subsequently, this lifelong learning competence should help to keep your students safe  while navigating the online world. Your browser is not able to display frames. Please visit Staying Safe on Social Media on MindMeister. 5. Learning to learn As Jesse Berg, visual learning specialist, recently explained in his article on differentiated learning, mind mapping provides a universal thinking strategy which enables students to organize ideas and can be applied to just about any topic. By laying out text, concepts, themes and connections in a visual and colorful way, mind mappers utilize their visual, spatial and kinesthetic senses. Jesse Berg found this makes learning easier to understand and information easier retain. By teaching your students how to mind map you can support this lifelong learning competence. Mind mapping provides your students with a fun, easy and memorable method which will help to instill a love of learning in your students. One lesson idea for developing this competence is  to ask students to create a mind map on study skills in class. Ask students to insert a YouTube video on study skills at the center of their mind map. This can be done via the video insert feature on the MindMeister sidebar. Students can then press play on the video in the center and create topic branches based on the content of the video as it plays,  ultimately creating a useful study resource. Your browser is not able to display frames. Please visit The 9 Best Scientific Study Tips on MindMeister. 6.  Social and civil competencies These competencies refer to an understanding of key structures and values such as democracy, justice, equality, citizenship and civil rights. The competencies aim to develop the personal, interpersonal and intercultural abilities of students, providing them with the lifelong learning skills to be active and ethical citizens. For this type of highly personal learning, which could bring up family stories and vary depending on socio-economic situations and beliefs, it’s important that you first create a safe learning environment. The aim is to create a classroom environment where students will listen to one another and know only to disclose personal information and worries when appropriate. In this case, directly to the teacher rather than in front of the whole class. It’s also important to ensure your teaching begins at your students’ level, in terms of prior knowledge. To begin a class focusing on this competence, create a mind map on the projector based on the topic you’re looking to cover. Then, invite students to add details on what they know about the topic so far. You could make each topic on the map a question you’re looking to establish their current understanding on, then ask pupils to contribute what they already know or believe. Your browser is not able to display frames. Please visit Human Rights on MindMeister. 7.  Sense of initiative and entrepreneurship A sense of initiative and entrepreneurship will assist your students in becoming creative, proactive and well-organised young people. This competence should also provide the lifelong learning skills to succeed in the workplace. Try setting your students an entrepreneurial task where they work in small teams to come up with a product. The product should cost less than $5 per item to produce, but students should feel they could either make a profit or support a social cause. Ask them to create a mind map and share it with their whole team, so everyone can contribute to the map. The map should include their research, justifying why the product would have a Unique Selling Point. It could also include details of how they plan to produce and market the product. The groups can then take it in turns to present or ‘pitch’ their idea to the rest of the class. Your students could use MindMeister to  vote on which product they believe to be the best idea. Your browser is not able to display frames. Please visit The Big Idea on MindMeister. 8. Cultural awareness and expression Creativity and cultural awareness go hand in hand. In order for students to appreciate the value and enjoyment of music, performing arts, literature and visual arts, why not encourage your students to learn about these exciting topics in a creative way. Organize a school trip to a local cultural event, such as an age-appropriate film festival or a Shakespeare theater performance. Ask students to write down their thoughts and reflections for homework. When back in class, ask your students to create a mind map, detailing their opinions on the performance. These could include cast members, character relationships, key themes and perhaps notes on the accompanying music, in order to form the basis of a newspaper review. Ask them to then export the mind map, to convert it into a word document and finalize their review with a headline, subheading and a 1 to 5-star rating. To export a map, simply open the map and click on the bottom right-hand cloud icon. You can then choose the format you would like to export the map in, for example as a Word document, shown below. The below Word document was exported directly from this mind map review  of  Othello, directed by Iqbal Khan. So those are our suggestions on how to bring the eight key competencies for promoting lifelong learning, known as phenomenon-based learning, straight to your classroom. As always, if you have any ideas, questions or comments, please do share them with us in the comments below! Try online mind mapping in your classroom MindMeister for Education From $1 per student! MindMeister for Education If you enjoyed this article you might also like 5 Ways to Apply Project Management Ideas in Your School

The Pros and Cons of Nuclear Energy - 3051 Words

Many people take energy for granted. Most do not think about where that electricity is coming from when they flip a switch or turn on a faucet. The fact is, is that our consumption of non-renewable energy cannot last forever. We need some type of alternative energy source. There are many types of alternative energy sources that are available to us today. Some however, such as nuclear energy, are often rejected due to the fears or concerns of many people. On the other hand, there are also many people in favor of nuclear energy. What it is that nuclear energy has to offer us? What could the effects of nuclear energy have on the future of Earth? What could it mean for people on Earth? What exactly is nuclear energy and how does it†¦show more content†¦The use of renewable energies such as wind, solar, tidal, or geothermal power are not always reliable, can be very expensive, and can be difficult to harness. A dry spell of wind or a cloudy, cold, snowy winter could cause these types of energy to be useless to us. Other times we might get an abundance of wind or sun, but how do we harness this for later use? Many think the answer is simply storing the energy in batteries but this is a very uneconomical option. The size and amounts of batteries and renewable energy plants needed to do this would be outrageous and quite frankly, impossible (Lowe, 16). Take a large city for example. Running a city on renewable energy would be problematic, especially during peak operating hours like mornings and at nights after work. Power would not always be reliable because obviously it is not always windy or sunny and grid wide power outages would make a lot of unhappy people. What would hospitals, police stations, or other services that need to be open 24 hours a day do with such blackouts? If these blackouts occur just a few times, imagine the chaos that would ensue (Lowe, 18). 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â€Å"Alzheimer’s From A New Angle: A radical new approach to treating the fearful disease is showing promise† by Alice Park, an article found in the February 22/29, 2016 issue of TIME magazine, delves into encouraging new research being conducted to find a cure for Alzheimer’s disease, a progressive neurodegenerative condition that destroys the brain. Dr. Frank Longo, from the Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences at Stanford University, School of Medicine, is leading the charge. This disease was discovered over 110 years ago by a German physician named, Alois Alzheimer. For so many years now, researchers have focused solely on treating/stopping Alzheimer’s once its devastation has already begun. 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Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal Toronto Delhi Mexico City Sao Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo Editorial Director: Sally Yagan Director of Editorial Services:Read MoreSocm Study Guide Essay30404 Words   |  122 PagesCaudal – the tail (coccyx in humans) Inferior – Below; at a lower level Medial – Toward the body’s longitudinal axis Lateral – Away from the body’s longitudinal axis Proximal – Toward an attached base Distal – Away from an attached base Superficial – At, near, or relatively close to the body surface Deep – Farther from the body surface Identify the major body cavities and their subdivisions. Dorsal Cavity * Cranial Cavity (surrounds the brain)

Ap Euro Notes Free Essays

string(822) " a squabble between monks†, ignored 95 theses Luther cont’d- Dominicans wanted to charge Luther with Heresy because of the 95 Theses, Address to the Christian Nobility= secular gov’t can reform church, On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church= attacked sacraments, Liberty of a Christian Man= bible is the sole \[SOUL HAHAHA\] source of faith, a bolt of lightning almost strikes him-gt; he becomes a monk \[what the hell\? Pope Leo X- issued a papal bull \[Toro! \] demanding Luther recant or be burnt, Luther burns bull, excommunicated \[by PETA\] Frederick, elector of Saxony- German prince, sympathetic to Luther’s ideas Diet of Worms \[Eww\]: Council of German nobility, HRE emperor Charles X asked Luther if he repudiates his books, to which he said he doesn’t accept authority of the pope, only God\." AP EUROPEAN HISTORY NOTES- Filled with silliness and inside jokes, enjoy at your leisure 🙂 If something is in [] brackets, it is only written in there for our pleasure, ignore it if you are looking for actual information. †¢ 7: The Renaissance and Reformation- 1350-1600 Key: UMSUniversal o Georgio Vasari- Rinascita=rebirth (like Renaissance) painter/architect Male Suffrage o Individualism: People sought to receive personal credit for achievements, unlike medieval ideal of â€Å"all glory goes to god† Names Ideas o Renaissance: Began in Italian city-states, a cause de invention of the printing press, laid way for Protestant Reformation Events Books/Texts Italy: City states, under HRE (Holy Roman Empire) o For alliances: ? old nobility vs. wealthy merchants FIGHT P-Prussia ? Popolo: third class, â€Å"the people†, wanted own share of wealth/power R-Russia A-Austria ? Ciompi Revolts: 1378 Florence, Popolo were revolting [eew], brief period of control over government B-Britain ? Milan taken over by signor (which is a tyrant) †¢ Under control of the Condottiero (mercenary) Sforza- Significant because after this, a few wealthy families dominated Venice (e. We will write a custom essay sample on Ap Euro Notes or any similar topic only for you Order Now g. Medici) o Humanism: Francesco Petrarch (Sonnets), came up with term â€Å"Dark Ages†, began to study classical world of rhetoric and literature ? Cicero: Important Roman, provided account of collapse of Roman Republic [like Edward Gibbon], invented Ciceronian style: Latin style of writing which humanists followed †¢ [Even though they weren’t in Rome, Humanists did as the Romans do] ? Despite being accused of following Pagan culture, Petrarch talked a lot about universality Civic Humanists: Politicians/ diplomats, utilized public education for common good Plato: Studying Greek allowed enlightened people to observe platonic ideals [also, big fat weddings] ? ? †¢ e. g. Platonic view of human potential: observed by Pico della Mirandola, who gave oration on the dignity of man ? Castiglione: wrote The Courtier, about what we would call a â€Å"renaissance man†: knew languages, classical literature, and artsy stuff -12009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus ? Lorenzo Valla wrote about Donation of Constantine: Document where Constantine took control of the Christian empire, said it was a fake because the word fief was not invented yet. †¢ Analyzed The Vulgate Bible, said Jerome mistranslated from Greek! [silly Jerome] ? Leonardo Bruni [like Carla Bruni]- created education for women, though †¢ Left public speech out of curriculum, because â€Å"women had no outlet to use these skills† [oh. Silly women. ? o o Christine de Pisan wrote The City of Ladies, countered notion of inferiority, [but this was soon proven false. ] Middle Ages: Paintings were fresco [fresca] on plaster, Tempera on wood Renaissance Art ? Chiaroscuro: [Not at all like Mr. Carrasco]: Contrast between light/dark to make 3D images Single-point perspective- everything converges to a point at infinity †¢ More realism than in Dark Ages art ? ? ? ? Filippo Brunelleschi- dome at cathedral of Florence High renaissance- Rome replaces Florence as center of art Religious people in Florence do not like new style, but Popes (Julius II) liked â€Å"to beautify [bootify? their city† Late Renaissance/Mannerism- distorted figures and confusing themes reflected growing crisis in Italy High Renaissance Artists ? ? †¢ †¢ Leonardo da Vinci- Military engineer, architect, sculptor, scientist, inventor, Mona Lisa Raphael- from Urbino, commissioned for Vatican palaces, images of Jesus and Mary, School of Athens shows Plato + Aristotle [kissing? ] in single point perspective Michelangelo- David commissioned by Florence as propaganda work against Milan [maybe it was the genitalia. , Sistine Chapel for Julius II, tomb for Julius II [Splinter- Trainer of the Ninja Turtles] †¢ †¢ o Northern Renaissance ? Questions concerning reli gion- study early Christian authors -22009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus ? Erasmus + More- Christian humanists criticized church, horrified that Martin Luther did not find ways to better the Catholic church †¢ Desiderius Erasmus- coined â€Å"Where there is smoke there is a fire† in his book Adages, also wrote Praise of Folly= Satire to criticize church, wanted to reform church instead of abandoning it like [Lex? No. ] Luther Sir Thomas More- Utopia, meaning ‘nowhere’, executed for not recognizing Henry VIII as head of the church of England ([ut he could have just forgotten his glasses] †¢ ? Art †¢ †¢ †¢ Albrecht Duror- woodcuts in support of Luther’s revolution Chaucer- Canterbury Tales based The Decameron William Shakespeare- [about whom we know nothing] only primary school education, examined human psyche and dramatic intensity in his work, contemporaries= Christopher Marlowe and Ben Jonson, [wooer of beautiful History teachers] Printing Press with movable type- Johannes Gutenberg, 200 bibles, went broke after making his bibles as ornate as handwritten ones, sillllllllly †¢ †¢ †¢ Movable type created rapid spread of information Informed people of religious debates Made churches’ monopoly over bible interpretations VEXING o Protestant Reformation [complex and compelling! ] ? Humanism- led individuals to question traditional ideas of salvation [but not salivation] Problems facing El Churcho ? †¢ †¢ Black Death- â€Å"ferocious outbreak of the black plague†, [not related to black people] Anticlericalism- movement disrespecting clergy arising from poor performance of clergymen during the plague, and in fact, that such a plague could befall so many people Pietism- [DELICIOUS] direct relationship between the individual and god, reducing the need for a hierarchical church Babylonian Captivity and corruption in general within the church Poorly educated lower clergy, often a result of simony- the sale of church office †¢ †¢ †¢ 32009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus ? John Wycliff- had some no nos: †¢ No no: wealth of church No no: transubstantiation- the belief that bread and wine are Jesus’ body and blood [Wait, did Catholics support heathen cannibalism? What. ] No no: indulgences- selling of salvation by the church/no waiting in Purgatory, began during crusades to get knights [but was a popular sin for ages] â€Å"urged his follo wers (known for unclear reasons as the Lollards) [lololol] to read the bible and to interpret it themselves† Translated bible into English †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ ? Jan Hus- Bohemia, Rector of University of Prague said bible was gt; church, called before council in Constance, promised safe passage there, but burnt at the stake [medium-rare] Martin Luther [not to be confused with Martin Postumus] [actually, feel free to confuse him with Martin Posthumus. Next time you see Martin, ask him about sacraments. ] – does not like indulgences, 95 Theses @ Wittenberg a response to ? †¢ Albert of Hohenzollern- had to raise ten thousand [ which is over 9,000] ducats, so hired Johann Tetzel to sell indulgences, Tetzel: â€Å"As soon as gold in the basin rings, the soul to heaven rings. o †¢ Pope Leo X: â€Å"Not interested in a squabble between monks†, ignored 95 theses Luther cont’d- Dominicans wanted to charge Luther with Heresy because of the 95 Theses, Address to the Christian Nobility= secular gov’t can reform church, On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church= attacked sacraments, Liberty of a Christian Man= bible is the sole [SOUL HAHAHA] source of faith, a bolt of lightning almost strikes him-gt; he becomes a monk [what the hell? Pope Leo X- issued a papal bull [Toro! ] demanding Luther recant or be burnt, Luther burns bull, excommunicated [by PETA] Frederick, elector of Saxony- German prince, sympathetic to Luther’s ideas Diet of Worms [Eww]: Council of German nobility, HRE emperor Charles X asked Luther if he repudiates his books, to which he said he doesn’t accept authority of the pope, only God. You read "Ap Euro Notes" in category "Papers" Exiled, hidden for a year in Wartburg Castle [filled with toads, very unpleasant] by Frederick of Saxony Luther Cont’d Cont’d: reduced sacraments from 7 to 2, which were baptism and communion, had several children with an ex-nun, family placed at center of religious faith. †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ -42009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus ? Why did the Reformation succeed? †¢ German Peasants’ Revolt- Result of worsened economic condition, 12 articles interpreting Lutheranism as a message of social egalitarianism, to which Luther wrote â€Å"Against The Robbing and Murderous Hordes of Peasants† Luther was not critical of—even encouraged—princes to confiscate Catholic land Charles V: Couldn’t control huge empire w/ Spain, New World, The Netherlands, Southern Italy, The Habsburgs, so he didn’t do anything when the Protestants got revolting [it’s because they never brushed their teeth], eventually fought protestants in [best word ever, by the way] Schmalkaldic Wars but was forced to sign Peace of Augsburg, which recognized Lutheranism in territories owned by a Lutheran. †¢ †¢ ? Radical Reformation †¢ Anabaptists- denied Baptism [go figure] o Believed baptism would only work on adults because they knew what they were doing. Rebaptism became a capital offense in HRE, darn. Anabaptists took over Munster and created an â€Å"Old-Testament-style theocracy†: men allowed to have multiple wives. More normal people [mainstream Christians] then captured it back. o o o †¢ Antitrinitarians- denied Trinity [Really? ] o Were hunted down ? Zwingli and Calvin †¢ Zwingli- Denied Sacraments, called last supper â€Å"a memorial of Christ’s death†, did not have actual presence of Christ [wait, explain this. Was he just like†¦ in the bathroom or something? â€Å"Hey guys, Jesus isn’t coming†¦ Should we start without him? †¦Sure! † Disciples are meanies, QED. ] o o Swiss patriot Died leading Zurich’s troops against Swiss Catholics †¢ John Calvin- Wrote Institutes of the Christian Religion: Predestination, No free will, Geneva= New Jerusalem, No taverns, Penalties for having gypsies read your fortune (not joking. ) ? [Black or Blonde? English-] The English Reformation -52009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus †¢ Henry the Eighth, by the Grace of God, King of England and France, Defender of the Faith and Lord of Ireland†- [Epitaph courtesy of Wikipedia when researching earlier. I want such a title. ] o Tried to divorce Catherine of Aragon, even though previous pope had given him special dispensation to marry her in the first place. Pope refused, Henry began reformation of parliament. ? Reformation Parliament: †¢ Gave bribes of land from monasteries (because he dissolved them) as a reward for passing certain acts, passed: o o Act of Supremacy: King of England is supreme head of Church of England Henry can marry Anne Boleyn Act of Succession: Children of Anne Boleyn are rightful heirs (ouch for Catherine) o o Had been sleeping with Anne Boleyn, gotten her pregnant, therefore â€Å"act in restraint of appeals† declaring the King decided spiritual cases within the kingdom rather than the pope. Anny Boleyn gave birth to Elizabeth Tudor, so he beheaded her. o †¢ †¢ Edward VI- Short reign, tried to institute Protestant theology into Church of England. Mary Tudor- Also short reign, wife of â€Å"phonetically catholic† Philip of Spain, tried to bring back Catholicism. ? Burned several hundred Englishmen at the stake [? ] The Counterreformation- Also known as the Catholic Reformation †¢ Index of prohibited books- Included Erasmus, Galileo [what, physics? Never heard of it†¦] Papal inquisition- Put heretics to death [heretic is a freaking awesome word. ] Council of Trent- Papacy co ntrolled church council, enhanced papal power o Council placed limits on simony, mandated education, caused intensely polar interpretations of the world, Baroque art and music created. [If it ain’t Baroque, don’t fix it! ] †¢ †¢ †¢ Ignatius Loyola- founded Jesuits, Religion was a â€Å"spiritual conversation with God†, not within Bible but within oneself. Spiritual exercises. -62009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus †¢ 8: The Age of Expansion and the Rise of Monarchical States o Portuguese Spanish Empires ? Bartholomew Dias: sailed around Cape of Good Hope, southern tip of Africa. [Cape of Hood Hope: common typo? ] Vasco de Gama: reached coast of India Christopher Columbus: Sailed to Canary Islands, from there to Bahamas †¢ Noted in his diary that Indians were friendly and gentle, therefore easy to enslave [Not a cool guy] ? ? Magellan circumnavigates globe †¢ Cortez- Mexico, in Aztec Empire o Conquered Tenochtitlan with help of Aztec slaves †¢ †¢ Montezuma- gave gold, in return Spanish seized the capital and took him hostage. [Really, Spain? Really? ] Pizarro destroyed Incas in Peru o †¢ o Captured Inca emperor Atahuelpa, ransomed him for gold, ruled thro ugh him, then killed him. [Yep, this again. ] Spanish created Haciendas, plantations, through encomienda system of forced labor [for some reason, Alex prefers to italicize rather than bold] Development of Monarchical States ? Reversal of parliaments from Middle Ages to create absolute monarchies †¢ †¢ ? Jean Bodin- Monarchies have to be absolute Louis XIV- France, Stuart Monarchs- England Nation-States †¢ Bureaucratization- established office of intendant, tax collector on behalf of monarch o Need for money led to corruption seen in sale of royal office (except in England) †¢ Permanent mercenary army o Swiss phalanx- army of pikemen [not Pokemon] [Pokemon is in the Mac dictionary] who killed horsemen, later had gunpowder. Created a 72009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus need for money in monarchy, need which could only be fed by an absolute monarchy. ? Monarchs need taxes to pay for permanent armies, which were used to suppress peasants angry at taxes—vicious circle ? Italy †¢ †¢ Treaty of Lodi- Balance of power among major Italian city-states, created alliance between enemies Milan and Naples [YOUR NAPLES ARE SHOW ING] Ludovico Il Moro- became despot in Milan, fought Naples [which are showing] and invited French to satisfy longstanding claims to Naples [which are showing] Charles VIII immediately did so, when he gets to Florence he meets Savonaroli, a radical Dominican preacher who had just expelled Medicis and established a Puritanical state Recognizes what he had done, joined an anti-French alliance to expel French and reinstate Medicis Medicis burn Savonaroli at the stake (with support of Pope) in revenge. o o †¢ Nicola Machiavelli- The Prince [Story about a prince on a white horse, saves a princess and then marries her to gain control of her country, institutes harsh rule] ? Spain- [Dominion of JULIA LOPEZ] Ferdinand of Aragon marries Isabella of Castille o Consolidated peninsula- called Reconquista ? Included Religious Uniformity, led to Spanish Inquisition [Nobody expected it] [I’d prefer a new edition of the Spanish Inquisition than to ever let a woman in my life] Spanish I nquisition: Anti-Jew, Anti-Moor ? o Charles V (Ferdinand Isabella’s grandson)- married into becoming HRE, abdicates and gives throne to brother Ferdinand (also controls Habsburg lands) ? His son Philip receives Spain, southern Italy, The Netherlands, the New World Duke of Alva’s Council of Troubles: tried to enforce Catholicism for Philip in Netherlands, also sent Military hero Don Juan to fight, later sent Spanish Armada Results: Council failed, Don Juan failed, Protestant Wind blew Armada away [WOOOOOOOSH] †¢ -82009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus †¢ †¢ o Cervantes- Don Quixote [Donkey Hotay], bemoaned lack of chivalry [French for Being a Horse] in Spain El Greco revealed that powerful Spain could not maintain European position The Holy Roman Empire ? 0th and 11th centuries- most powerful state, grew weaker with papal conflict †¢ Despite lack of army, popes supported by German Nobility, giving them strong sway over emperor o â € ¢ †¢ Golden Bull- 7 German princes given right to elect emperor Charles V- powerful Habsburg, attempted to establish genuine imperial control, used Lutheran reformation as a weapon against German princes Peace of Augsburg- Princes given the right to decide religion of territory aka Ecclesiastical Reservation, Catholicism or Lutheranism o Problematic for Frederick III of the Palatinate (an elector state) who was a Calvinist ? Thirty Years War- about thirty years long. †¢ †¢ †¢ Began in Bohemia, Ferdinand of Styria is crowned king Protestant angry with his intolerance defenestrate his catholic advisors in Prague [Turkey Baster Turkey Baster la la la la la] HRE Emperor Mathias dies, Ferdinand elected emperor o A few hours later, he learns he has been overthrown in Bohemia †¢ †¢ †¢ Frederick, a Calvinist (! ) is the new king in Bohemia Ferdinand had no army, so he borrowed the Duke of Bavaria’s army [what? You can do that? ] Battle of the White Mountain- Bavarian forces win a major victory, [create cream] Frederick is now sad, called the winter king because he only ruled for winter Private armies want to keep fighting so they can have $$$, so war continues Duke of Bavaria fears Habsburgs-gt; Ferdinand must find new army †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ o o Albrecht von Wallenstein- VAST MERC ARMY 125,000 Major victories in the north for Ferdinand -92009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Edict of Restitution- outlawed Calvinism, required Lutherans to turn over all property seized since 1552 Gustavus Adolphus- King of Sweden, entered war due to Edict, claiming to defend Protestant rights, actually nope, just wanted German territory Cardinal Richelieu- Absolutist, Decided to support Swedish army [financially because he didn’t want Habsburgs to be strong Peace of Westphalia- 30 yr war over o o HRE maintains divisions Emperor still leader of Germany Reaffirmed Peace of Augsburg (princes choose religion of territory, Calvinism added as a choice now) o France- [Dominion of Funny Bear (http://www. youtube. com/watch? v=5H59Py7KApU) and Gerard Giblin] ? Henry II- dies in a jousting tournament from a lance to the eye, [he should have seen that coming†¦] -gt; Francis II is king French Wars of Religion †¢ Began when Duke of Guise saw a group of Huguenots worshiping in a barn, got mad, HAD THEM SLAIN Huguenots- French Calvinists [HUGE KNOTS] Catherine de Medici o o After Henry II dies, Francis II was too young—Catherine was a regent January Edict of 1562- Huguenots [HUGE KNOTS] gain freedom of worship Peace of Saint Germaine-Laye: Protestants can fortify cities (Catherine allied with Catholics, but did not want the protestants to be sad, so this is what they get) †¢ †¢ o †¢ †¢ Guise==catholic, militant [geese] Bourbon—Calvinists [ALEX WHAT UP WITH THE ITALICS] o o Admiral Coligny (Advisor to Charles IV, so Catherine didn’t like him) Prince of Conde—both converted for political opportunities Henry of Navarre (Bourbon prince) marries Charles IX’s sister, shifting power to B ourbons—Catherine de Medici doesn’t want either to have power, so she convinces Charles IX to do St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre- burning all Huguenots – 10 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus ? o Coligny dies, Navarre’s life spared—he promised to convert Henry III (Not Navarre) wanted to defeat powerful Catholic League [Geese], made Navarre his heir, Huguenots then helped him attack them Peace of Beaulieu- complete religious freedom for Protestants. [THIS IS NEW. NO REALLY. ] Henry of Navarre becomes Henry IV of France when Henry III assassinated o o ? ? ? Everyone supports him because of common enemy of Spain Until revolution, all French kings are from Bourbon dynasty Converts to Catholicism to be of the majority group, but so Huguenots would not get mad he created: Edict of Nantes- Huguenots can worship and assemble, and maintain fortified cities NAVARRRRRRR ? Politique- the idea of putting the interest of the state before religious unity- Henry III and Henry IV was one of these Royal Absolutism- ? †¢ Henry IV tries to revitalize kingdom torn apart by war o o Duke of Sully + HIV [Henry the fourth, silly]- established government monopolies over things people like, such as salt Limited nobility in parliament Assassinated, 9 year old son Louis XIII takes throne, but like most nine year olds, is a relatively weak King. o †¢ Louis XIII o Needed strong minister†¦ Bonjour, Cardinal Richelieu! ? Richelieu beats up Huguenots [HUGE KNOTS] and takes away Edict of Nantes [that was fast. ] Brings France into thirty years war -gt; increased gov’t power Dies, replaced by Mazarin ? ? †¢ Louis XIV o Five years old. Anne Of Austria, his mother, selects Cardinal Mazarin to be regent – 11 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus ? o Less sure political hand than Richelieu. This led to a lot of rebellions called the Fronde. Mazarin dies, Louis decides because of the Fronde to rule without an advisor [he is a teenager and believes the world revolves around him] Louis told people that the monarch had the â€Å"divine rights,† backed it up by the Old Testament. o ? Bishop Bossuet said that the king was chosen by god (only god could judge the behavior of the king) [Louis was probably sitting in a corner, going, â€Å"don’t judge me! †] o o May or may not have said â€Å"l’etat c’est moi,† (I am the state) Builds Versailles to demonstrate his power, wanted to safely ignore the people 12 miles away from Paris ? While it cost a huge amount of money to maintain Versailles, Louis thought it was worth it. Instead of plotting against the king, the aristocrats were involved with court intrigue and gossip and with ceremonial issues such as who got to hold the king’s sleeve as he dressed† [Best review book ever? ] o Jean-Baptiste Colbert= minister, instituted mer cantilism? building up gold by exporting goods, an economy based on exports. Organized factories and abolished tariffs. ? Five Great Farms- large regions where one does not have to go through customs French East India Company, west coast of Africa, posts in India, much of the Caribbean, Quebec, = French international mercantilist empire of supreme power. ? o For real this time. Revokes the Edicts of Nantes, demolishes Huguenot churches, takes away Huguenot’s civil rights. They ran away to England and the Netherlands, and since France was at war with England and the Netherlands, they fought against France. [Stupid, stupid Louis] ? o England Treaty of Utrecht- Bourbons lead Spain ? War of the Roses- Series of civil wars to determine whether York or Lancaster would rule England. †¢ †¢ Result: Lancaster (Henry VII, a Tudor) will be king. After Henry VII dies, Henry VIII becomes king [surprise surprise] – 12 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus ? Henry VIII believed his sovereignty would be ineffective if England was under religious jurisdiction of Rome-gt; created Church of England TUDOR: Queen Elizabeth—Henry’s daughter with Anne Boleyn ? †¢ Called The Virgin Queen- used marriage as a diplomatic tool, used rulers made them think she would marry them ? owerful alliances [writing that in italics makes it look like the name of a boat] †¢ Mary Stuart of Scotland- her legal heir, also Catholic o Kept her under house arrest, she was afraid Mary was plotting against her Treaty of Burwick- Let it be known that James (Mary’s son) will be king of England instead (he was Protestant), in your face Mary Quee n of Scots ? Knock knock †¢ Who’s there o Mary Queen of Scots o Bye bye, your head! o †¢ Elizabeth beat Spanish Armada? England remains Protestant and free of foreign dominance ? STUART: James VI- Absolutist, didn’t call parliament for awhile, eventually he called it because he needed money †¢ Puritans- thought monarch shouldn’t be head of church o So James persecuted the Puritans ? STUART: Charles I †¢ Lent support to Armenians (sect of Anglican church, believed in predestination), named William Laud the Archbishop of Canterbury [unrelated to the eggs] [wait, those are Cadbury Eggs. Never mind] Requested a forced loan from nobles, they didn’t want to pay so he threw them in jail †¢ o They put forward Petition of Rights, forced him to sign: ? ? ? No forced taxation without Parliament No free man could be imprisoned without due cause No quartering of troops in private homes – 13 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus ? No martial law against civilians †¢ John Eliot- Three Resolutions [this formatting is intense] o o o Anyone suspected of practicing Catholicism is a â€Å"capital enemy of the state† Any of King’s advisors who recommend he raise funds outside of Parliament are also â€Å"capital enemies of the state† Anyone who paid tonnage and poundage (duties the king imposed without parliament) was betraying the liberties of England Response: King dissolved parliament †¢ Personal Rule of Charles: Charles governing England sans Parliament o To get money: collected ship money: used to be where coastal towns paid extra tax to pay for shipbuilding, but now errrybody in the club getting taxed. Insisted that Calvinist Scotland adopt Church of England and prayer book The Book O f Common Prayer 1640: Charles called parliament because he thought they would give him money to put down Scottish rebellion- â€Å"Short Parliament† Dissolved it because they refused to give him funds before addressing their own needs. Formed an army because he was still angry at Scots [then he banned kilts] ? JK, Scots win †¢ †¢ Scots refuse to leave after invading England Made Charles pay a lot of money to them o o o o †¢ Charles has to call Long Parliament to pay for it o o o o Size matters Met for 20 years Impeached Charles’ ministers Abolished prerogative courts (king’s courts) such as Star Chamber †¢ Grand Remonstrance- A lot (240) of things that Parliament are moaning and whining about o Says Parliament has to approve minister – 14 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus o o o Church of England reformed by committee No ship money ***Parliament called once every 3 years*** †¢ In response: CHARLES INVADES PARLIAMENT o †¢ House of Commons passes Militia Ordinance (very quickly because there were Soldiers at their doors) Gave Parliament control of the army [Charles I fled to England, just in case] o [jk] ? Civil War Happened †¢ Major issues: o Whether England was going to have an absolute monarch or parliamentary m onarch Anglican or Presbyterian [See Lizzy Pelletier] Cavaliers vs Roundheads o o ? ? ? Cavaliers==King Charles, Nobility, Anglicans Roundheads==parliament, Scots, townspeople, puritans Parliament won because of alliance with Scots Gen Cromwell (Lord Protector) created â€Å"New Model† army Parliament tries Charles for treason, executes ? ? Commonwealth †¢ †¢ Abolished monarchy + house of lords No more Anglican church, now puritan republic o Puritan Rules of Behavior: simple clothes, no entertainment, no alcohol, no dancing, [no fun. ] Independents wanted state church and religious freedom Presbyterians wanted state church and NO DISSENTERS o o †¢ Parliament: No mo army o Cromwell says nope – 15 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus ? Wants to conquer Ireland and Scotland [didn’t these guys just help you? Not cool. Parliament gives no money to Army †¢ Cromwell disbands Parliament o This is a new thing. We have never seen th is before. Really. The only important thing he does is separate England into military districts ? o ? Cromwell dies, monarchy back †¢ STUART: CHARLES II o Treaty of Dover [come on Dover. Move your bloomin’ arse! ]- Charles would convert to Catholicism when conditions permit, made between Charles and French Louis XIV ? Charles gets a lot of money from Louis. This was good for him because he was getting a lot less English money to support his lavish lifestyle †¢ STUART: James II o repeals Test Act (didn’t allow Catholics to be officials/military, swear oaths for transubstantion), [also, AP Test Act] Declaration of Indulgence ? ? No more religious tests for office holders Allowed freedom of worship Parliament Reaction: Not worried because they thought the throne would go to James’ daughter: Mary the protestant †¢ Sneaky James marries, makes a bebby, New James the Catholic o Parliament responds by inviting Mary the protestant and her new husband, Will iam of Orange to invade England, no opposition ? †¢ ORANGES: William and Mary o Bill of Rights of 1689 ? Limits power of monarchy: monarch is subject to law, must be protestant, include parliament in lawmaking [monarch butterflies still free to do as they please] – 16 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Elections to parliament free of royal interference No church courts Parliament consent for taxes required You can petition the king Parliament consent required for army People can have guns â€Å"Freedom of Debate† in parliament [because until now, they coincidentally agreed on everything] King can’t just take people’s stuff without having a trial. Then he can. Excessive bail, nono. Parliament has to be held frequently. ? ? ? o Act Of Toleration- a compromise bill ? Non-conformists (protestants who were not in the church of England) given right of public worship, Unitarians or Catholics were illegal. Test Act remained ? o The Mutiny Act [mutated knee act] ? Authorized martial law to govern the army. Had to be re-passed every year (parliament had to be summoned yearly for this) †¢ Queen is now STUART: Anne. Nothing changes. o Act of Settlement- preventing catholic Stuarts from getting on the throne ? Basically, this said that if Queen Anne dies without an heir, the throne goes to the Protestants in Hanover. Specifically, George the first. o Act Of Union- formed Great Britain out of England and Scotland. Only done so that Scotland would not go to war with England allied with France. ? Scotland gives up their parliament, allowed to maintain a Presbyterian church. o The Netherlands- a center of commerce and trade. ? Dutch War Of Independence – 17 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus †¢ †¢ †¢ ? City of Antwerp was sacked. They closed the Scheldt river as part of the peace of Westphalia. Lead to the center of trade being changed to Amsterdam. The Golden Age †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Bank of Amsterdam Dutch east India company Higher standard of living Religious tolerance â€Å"The Dutch proved to be nimble businessmen† In the Spanish inquisition, Jews fled to Netherlands [one could say they were orange Jews] Franz Hals- great portrait painter from Haarlem (yes, it’s spelled like that. ) Jan Vermeer- painted scenes of everyday Dutch life Rembrandt Van Rijn- painted The Night Watch- baroque art period †¢ †¢ †¢ ? Political decentralization †¢ †¢ †¢ o House of Orange- noble house who got power from revolting against Spain. Stadholder= male head of the family William of Nassau (he’s William of Orange, guys) = stadholder of the family Orange beats up France. He also became the king of England. Life in Modern Europe ? ? Growth and population- Pop ulation doubled in France between 1450-1550 Price revolution- population growth put pressure on basic commodities. Prices had to increase like 500% because supply was less than demand. Rural life †¢ Gentry are people from towns and cities. o These guys begin to enclose their lands aka. Fence off land that used to be open. ? †¢ English Poor Law-The state provides for the poor – 18 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus †¢ †¢ ? 3-field system- the rotation of crops in agriculture? 1/3 lay fallow (they didn’t use it), 1/3 crops, 1/3 animals [baa baa moooo] Primogeniture- the oldest male child gets all the jaunt. City life †¢ Guilds continue to play a role in production of commodities. Cloth production done on a large scale. Capitalist entrepreneur would provide funds and organization of every stage of production. This made specialized guild-members sad. †¢ ? Family life †¢ †¢ No more than 3 or 4 children (usually) Marriages were arranged by parents, or formally improved, because they involved a transfer of property o o Married couples are full-fledged members of society â€Å"Single adults were looked on as potential thieves or trouble-makers if they were male, and as prostitutes if they were female. † There was a dowry o †¢ Tasks divided by gender age, child labor was normal. Men do work, women cook, clean and make bebbies. For Protestants, the house became central rather than the church. o Paternalism increased because father is now the only person between the family and god †¢ †¢ 9: The Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment o Before the scientific revolution ? The view of scholasticism-combination of Christianity and ancient authors, such as Thomas Aquinas and Aristotle. †¢ Four Elements: earth, air, fire, water o Earth is the heaviest element and the earth is the center of the universe †¢ †¢ o Alchemy could define chemistry of the time Didn’t care about astronomy, believed in the works of Ptolemy (the heavens move around the earth) The Copernican revolution – 19 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus ? Nicolas Copernicus wrote Concerning The Revolutions Of Celestial Spheres. A heliocentric universe, where the planets move about the sun. The orbits were circular. Tycho Brahe- the movement of the sun revolved around the earth but the other planets revolved around the sun. he taught Kepler. [fun facts about Brahe, courtesy of Mr. Willard: Brahe lost his nose in a bar fight over a math question, and fixed it with many metal noses that he would replace from day to day. Also, he had a pet dwarf who he would bring out at parties. The dwarf would go under the table and â€Å"do things with his hands†] Johannes Kepler- planets go in ellipses. Galileo Galilei- invented the telescope. The moon has mountains, and it’s made of the same material as earth. Jupiter has moons, and stars are far away. He also stated that the acceleration of gravity was constant for all masses. Giordano Bruno argued that there were many worlds in the universe, the papal inquisition executed him. Isaac Newton wrote Principia, examined the relations of different forces, invented differential calculus, and discovered that white light was a mixture of different lights. ? ? ? ? ? o The impact of scientific revolution on philosophy ? Francis Bacon [a delicious man] argued to examine evidence from nature when making thesis. Rene Descartes- â€Å"I think therefore I am,† wrote Discourse on Method, challenged major classical beliefs. He invented logical proofs (if P then Q), he tried to make logic and philosophy be done with math because it was incorruptible [see: Robespierre in relation to math] Blaise Pascal [the fireman] Pascal’s wager= it is better to bet that god exists than to bet that he does not, since if he does you will go to heaven, and if he doesn’t then you don’t lose anything. Thomas Hobbes believed that life was nasty, brutish and short. Wanted absolutism (man formed states with a sovereign that has complete power, the subjects would never rebel) because man naturally wanted to destroy each other. John Locke- social contract between the people and the state, where the people have certain inalienable rights [no ET allowed]: of life, liberty, and property. If a government infringes on these rights, man has the right [nay, the responsibility] to rebel. Another idea was Tabula Rasa- there is no predestination or original sin; people were born with a clean slate. ? ? ? ? o The eighteenth-century Enlightenment ? Immanuel Kant- idea that individuals should not believe an idea simply because authority says it, people should use reasoning to solve problems. Philosophers are thinkers and would often speak at salons. ? – 20 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus ? Republic of Letters was an international community of philosophers who communicated en francais [M. Giblin]. Voltaire was a philosophe. And a deist- believed that god created the universe and the laws of science, those laws are still being followed. ? †¢ †¢ Ecrasez l’infame (crush the horrible thing) was anti-religion He wrote Candide- humans cannot expect to find happiness by associating with specific philosophical systems. People should try to find a private comfort. ? Baron de Montesquieu wrote The Spirit of the Laws, wrote about separation of powers and checks and balances. Also said that slavery was unnatural and bad. Diderot wrote Encyclopedia, a collaboration of all the knowledge and information that was prominent at the time Rousseau was the most radical philosophe, antagonized Voltaire; believed in direct democracy vs. the other philosophes who believed in a constitutional monarchy. Ideas became prominent after his death, especially in the French Revolution. ? ? †¢ o Social Contract- Everyone has a duty to their country, a perfect society would be controlled by the â€Å"general will† of its populace The Spread of Enlightenment Thought ? Cesare Baccaria- Crimes and Punishment, about changing jurisprudence, the theory and philosophy of law. He believed everyone should have basic rights. David Hume- Atheism, doubt on religion. Questioned assumptions around cause and effect. EDWARD GIBBON- Wrote Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, [which was mean], criticized Christianity, saying it â€Å"weakened the vibrancy of the empire and contributed to its downfall† Adam Smith- Wealth of Nations: Free market, laissez-faire, invisible hand ? ? o Women and the Enlightenment ? Organized salons, where philosophes hung out Marquise de Pompadour- Louis the XV’s mistress, helped Diderot avoid censorship Mary Wollstonecraft- Women should vote, and hold public office. ? ? o European powers! In the age of enlightenment! ? Enlightened Absolutists- Catherine the Great of Russia, Joseph II of Austria, Frederick II of Prussia Prussia and Austria ? – 21 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus †¢ Frederick William (The Great Elector) worked out agreement with the Junkers (Prussian nobility)—they could have serfs, and would pay him money for the privilege Son Frederick III became Frederick I of Prussia (because Prussia became a Kingdom? ) Also was Frederick the Great, an enlightened absolutist o Freed serfs on Royal estates, but not the Junkers’ serfs, because he liked the Junkers. Abolished capital punishment, decreased amount of corporal punishment on serfs †¢ o †¢ Austrian Empress Maria Theresa begat Joseph II, who was a fan of religious toleration o †¢ Issued Edicts of Toleration, granting Jews, Lutherans, Calvinists freedom of worship Wars of Austrian Succession o o HREmperor Charles VI has no male heir, issues Pragmatic Sanctionsays there can be a female heir Therefore, Maria Theresa is crowned, but France and Prussia begin to seize land (violating the sanction) Frederick I takes advantage of this and seizes Silesia, the richest part of Austria Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle- Austrian throne will go to Habsburgs— ended the war Result of the War: Prussia gains power Diplomatic Revolution: alliance between Austrians and French, meant to weaken Prussians ? Great Britain allies with Prussia Leads directly into Seven Years War †¢ Ultimately won by Prussians and British because Russian Czar Peter III didn’t want to have so much conflict so he protected the Prussians British allies defeat the French in the French and Indian War in America o o o o ? †¢ ? Russia—[The Fatherland] †¢ Ivan the Terrible expanded territory under the control of Muscovy [what the hell? ], Russia entered into a period of time known as THE TIME OF TROUBLES 22 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus [When I find myself in times of trouble, FATHER STALIN comes to me], ended with the selection of a czar from the Romanov family. †¢ This was Peter the Great! o o o o Forced nobles to shave their beards (as was the style in the west) Taxed nobility by the number of serfs they had Established monopolies on commodities like salt (See HIV) Table of Ranks—each government position had a graduated ranking, social mobility Established St. Petersburg, a â€Å"window on the West†, built in the newest styles from France [if you haven’t gotten the hint, Peter was a big fan of the West] Conscripted serfs into the army, built the first Russian navy, defeated the Swedes in the great Northern war Catherine the Great codified Russian law and had an affair with Stanislaw Augustus Poniatowski, he â€Å"somehow became† the King of Poland shortly afterwards. o o o ? Poland †¢ Lithuanian grand-duke Jagiello married Polish queen Jadwiga? PolishLithuanian Commonwealth o Defeated the Teutonic Knights at Battle of Grunwald †¢ †¢ When Poniatowski becomes King, he â€Å"displayed an independent streak that Catherine the Great did not expect from her former Lover† Prussia, Russia, Austria forced Poland to accept a partition o Poland loses 30% of its territory †¢ Poland had Europe’s first written constitution o o Reduces the power of nobles who appealed to Russians for assistance Russia and Prussia partitioned again, which removed the constitution and removed a lot of land ? Tadeusz Kosciuszko leads a Polish revolt forcing Poniatowski to abdicate †¢ Third and final partition wiping Poland off the map. Great Britain †¢ Tories – 23 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus o †¢ Whigs o o Wanted prerogative rights of the monarch More enlightened, liked religious tolerance Had a certain leader ? Do you remember his name? †¢ It is Edmund Burke! o Argued that parties were essential to parliamentary government and political stability. †¢ †¢ You shou ld have learned all of the American Revolution stuff in APUSH American Revolution spurred a movement of parliamentary reform in Great Britain o John Wilkes, member of the House of Commons and part time pornographer*, arrested for publishing a satirical attack on King George III ? *Perfect example of social mobility. o ? France †¢ Wanted greater freedom of press and UMS Jansenists- Catholic sect which believes in predestination o Parlements==Provincial law courts made up of nobles, block Louis XV from supporting a papal decree banning Jansenists ? Louis XV abolishes parlements †¢ Louis XVI brings them back †¢ 10- The French Revolution, Napoleon, the European Reaction o Background [Wallpaper? ] of the revolution ? Major problem facing ‘80s France [‘fro’s? ] was financial—they were kinda bankrupt, Budget: †¢ †¢ 50% Paying debts and interest 25% military o †¢ Funding American revolution, skirmishes with British 6% Royal Life [whig powdering? ] [intentional misspelling. They powdered Edmund Burke] [he was a whig leader] – 24 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus †¢ ? 19% infrastructure [not that much. Sad peasant. ] Estates General †¢ First Estate- Church and Clergy o Wealthy churchies, but there were also poor churches who felt aligned for the third estate Tithe- church tax o †¢ Second Estate- Nobles and Aristocracy o o Only 3% of population Feudal privileges: Controlled mills and winemaking, would often charge their own fees for use of the mills effectively making it difficult for peasants to use their grain †¢ Third Estate- Peasants and Bourgeoisie (the educated upper middle class, lawyers and doctors and thinkers) o Abbe Sieyes- Qu’est-ce que le troisieme etat? , â€Å"What is the third estate? Everything. What has it been in the political order up till the present? Nothing. What does it ask? To become something. † Were always overruled in EG because 1/3, when gov’t needed money they always raised taxes †¢ ? ? [Fourth Estate- Batman] [He was Robin the Pierre] Role of Enlightenment? INSPIRATION. Causes †¢ †¢ Failed harvests in 1789 makes poor people poor Louis fires Minister Finance Necker who wanted to subsidize grain and tax nobles, Peasants sad ? Louis called Assembly of Notables (leading aristocrats and churches ), asked if they wanted to pay a land tax [they obviously said yes. ], instead suggested that they would have a greater share in governing [ok, sure guys], called for an Estates General o Calling of the Estates General ? ? [Hey, Estates General! Everybody complains that the third estate gets a third of the vote, so the King does nothing – 25 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus ? Erryone wanted change, but nobody knew how they wanted it, resulting in thousands of Cahiers de doleances (lists of grievances) †¢ Examples of what they wanted: equal tax system and regular meetings of the EG, limiting the size of sheep herds ? o King kept everybody waiting Tennis Court Oath ? The third estate was locked out of the meeting, so they went to a tennis court (handball) [whatever†¦ it was a court]. They resolved keep convening until there was a new constitution Declaration of the Rights of Man- Lafayette influenced this, King did not sign: guaranteed Liberty, Fraternity, and Equality (later the French Motto) ? o †¢ Leaders [THUNDER]STORMING OF THE BASTILLE AND THE GREAT FEAR National Assembly, Legislative Assembly, National Convention, The Directory Enrage J. Herbert Jacobins Robespierre, St. Just Couthon, â€Å"republic of pure virtue† idealism, vague Cordeliers J. P. Marat, G. J. Danton, C. Desmoulins Republic. One house, broader suffrage but not for women Girondists Jaques Brissot, MMme Roland, Condorcet, A. Sieyes Keep king as a figurehead, prime minister or president. Parliamentary system. Weak executive, strong legislative. Limited suffrage. Reform gradually, use laws. Upper bourgeoisie Feuillants Lafayette, Mirabeau Royalists Count Of Artios Agenda Anarchy Constitutional monarchy Absolutism Means To End Supporters Violence is nice. Abolish all, kill, then peace. Radical intellectuals, radical sandculottes Violence may be necessary (guillotine) Leaders? bourgeoisie, intellectuals. Followers? sansculottes Rapid reform, system of laws, wider suffrage Leaders? ourgeoisie, intellectuals. Followers ? sans-culottes Very slow and careful gradualllllllllllllly change, natural laws. Some (newer) nobles, some clergy Violence may be necessary to get back lost power Upper-class (old wealth) nobles, upper clergy – 26 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus o ? Bastille- prison, a symbol of royal despotism, held dissenters. Peasants went and took the gunpowder. When they kil led the governor (of the bastille), they put his head on a pike. This was the beginning of VIOLENCE! [bang bang! Louis was really scared. He recognized the Commune of Paris (a new government of the city of Paris). New national guard, under the command of Lafayette (a hero of the American Revolutionary War) The great [grape] fear: violence between the peasants and the nobles. Some aristocrats began to renounce their feudal rights Poissonards: Women from the fish market (poisson means fish), had knives for gutting, they could gut people like a fish [like Katie Evans]. It was raining, guards of the palace saw them and decided to invite them in and give them food. They found the King and Queen COWERING IN FEAR, Marquis de Lafayette made them compromise (they wanted to kill Marie Antoinette), instead they just had the royal family move to the Tuileries, a lesser palace in Paris. TURNING POINT: The center of the revolution was in Paris, Nat’l Assembly moved to Paris as well. June 1791-King and Queen try to eschape ? ? ? ? ? †¢ Dressed like bourgeoisie: went in a carriage, headed towards the Austrian Netherlands (Varenne) to meet up with the emigres (nobles who had fled during the Great Fear o †¢ Count of Artois (Louis XVI’s brother) had led the emigres. Were found out by a drunk guy, brought back to Paris and put under Palace Arrest ? Declaration of Pillnitz †¢ †¢ Issued by Leopold of Austria Said they would stifle France, but only if all of Europe came with them ? Olympe de Gouge- Wrote The Rights of Women, argued women should have property, education, and the right to divorce. Civil Constitution of the Church- King is forced to pass this: Church is a department of the state, bishops are elected, clergy has state-funded salaries and all have to swear an oath of loyalty. †¢ Considered by many historians (and Mrs. Lansell) to be the biggest mistake of the revolution. Created a split in religion when Pope Pius VI denounced the Civil Constitution. ? †¢ – 27 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus o o †¢ Refractory Clergy- more devout Catholics, included King and many peasants. Being part of this gave one a reason to be anti-revolution. Constitutional Clergy- strong revolutionaries—there was no strong reason to be part of this. Assignats- Government bonds backed by repossessed Church lands—each bill was redeemable for church land, eventually became the currency of the Republic. ? The National Assembly †¢ †¢ †¢ King has suspensive veto- can delay voting on legislation for 4 years. Also control army and foreign policy. Passive Citizens- Men who do not pay taxes. Active Citizens- Men who pay taxes. o Electors- active citizens with high property requirements. †¢ †¢ France was divided into 83 Departments (instead of the provinces) Paris Commune- Municipality of Paris, controlled by the people. Essentially idealistic communism (even though Marx hadn’t come up with it yet? ) o †¢ †¢ Controlled by Enrages Jews and Protestants have full political rights No slavery o †¢ †¢ Toussaint L ’Ouverture- Enraged at the continuation of slavery in the colonies, led a slave rebellion in Hispaniola (now Haiti) Brunswick Manifesto- Issued by Duke of Brunswick of Prussia— threatened to destroy Paris if the King or his family were harmed. Sans Culottes o Stormed the Tuileries and killed 600 Swiss mercenary guards, because they were bored and had nothing better to do. September Massacres- [Raped, killed, pillaged, and burned] o †¢ Lafayette is somehow No Longer the Commander: he flees and captured by Austrians and put in Jail until Napoleon comes and Frees Him. Paris Commune forces the National Assembly to create a new Legislative Body using UMS: this was called the National Convention †¢ o European Reactions to the French Revolution 28 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus ? William Pitt the Younger [dumbest name ever], British PM, hoped that the war would finally end the rivalry between the two nations. EDMUND BURKE- Wrote Reflections on the French Revolution, opposed the French Revolution, predicting it would become more violent [Well done, Edmund Buuuuur ke! ] ? o THE REIGN OF TERR[i]ER [Puppies? ](Actually TerrOr) ? Montagniards- Radical Jacobins- named because they chose to sit above all the others in the National Convention The Plain- Girondists, moderates. Believed in Laissez-Faire, supported a strong legislative government. Committee of Public Safety- Comprised of Danton, Carnot, and Maximilien Robespierre [who is incorruptible, right? ] Vendee- Area of France which uprose because the Revolutionary Tribunal (specifically Carnot, head of the military) created a Levee en Masse, or mandatory draft on every male 16-25. This angered the peasants because it took away their strong men right before the harvest. Law of Maxim- Froze wages and prices. Price controls benefited the Sans-Culottes. Law of Suspects- Empowers the Revolutionary Tribunal (Committee of Public Safety) to arrest anyone suspicious or suspected. †¢ Banned women from politics Censored the press ? ? ? ? ? ? Jean-Paul Marat- Journalist, published names of dissenters, stabbed by Charlotte Corday †¢ The day after he died was Bastille Day, so he was considered the martyr of the revolution and statues were made in his honor. Jacobins used his death as justification of the terror †¢ ? Jacobins tried to create a Republic of Virtue, where they removed all traces of the old regime. †¢ †¢ Created a new calendar Removed all traces of religious symbols Created the Cult of the Supreme Being- a religion celebrating virtue, Roman influence. Worship every 10 days (weeks were 10 days long in the revolutionary calendar) o †¢ Supreme Being was pretty much Robespierre. †¢ Guillotined political enemies, circa 20,000 people. – 29 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus o Many were Girondists. ? Desmoulins (a Cordelier) wrote for a newspaper, in which he called for the end of the terror and therefore was arrested by Robespierre †¢ †¢ †¢ Danton supported his theory (was also a Cordelier) and was arrested too No Cordeliers are left, so only the Jacobins are in power. Robespierre’s popularity wanes o Robespierre says he has a list of all the traitors in the National Assembly and that he will read it the next day Overnight they decide he is a traitor ? He is arrested †¢ He tried to shoot himself and fails o They execute him o ? Thermidorean Reaction- People get mad, 100 leading Jacobins are guillotined †¢ The White Terror- Any association with Jacobins or Robespierre would get you guillotined. o o The Directory Napoleon was arrested, but he managed not to get guillotined. ? The Council of Ancients- People aged 40+: They voted on legislation which the Council of 500 created. They had 3 year terms. The Council of 500- General assembly: had to be aged 30+. 2/3 of them had to have been in the National Convention. †¢ Royalists were upset because they had left the National Convention earlier. Tough luck, guys! 2/3 law reaction: Royalists are protesting over the 2/3 law, peasants are generally angry over bad harvests and such so royalists let them fight too. ? †¢ o NAPOLEON BONAPARTE How to cite Ap Euro Notes, Papers

Rousseau Analysis free essay sample

The Social Contract In ancient times all men lived in a state of nature until hardships and the necessity to form a civil society between one another became eminent. Jean Jacques Rousseau’s â€Å"The Social Contract,† analyses the steps and reasoning behind this transition. In Rousseau’s work he focuses on several key terms in order to define this transition clearly, they include: state of nature, social contract, civil society, general will, and the sovereign. It would be impossible to define the latter terms without first analyzing Rousseau’s definition of state of nature. This has to do with the fact that none of the terms have relevance without the existence of the state of nature. According to Rousseau, the state of nature is when there is no outside force influencing an individual’s decisions. It is here that a person can truly be called an individual. A good example of this definition is when a caveman lives alone and does what he pleases, when he pleases. We will write a custom essay sample on Rousseau Analysis or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page He is in no way tied down to any social restrictions. A civil society is the contrasting state of being where two or more individuals unite for the betterment of themselves and the group. This is done so by implementing rules, laws and regulations, and social restrictions. Because of this, a justice system is implemented to regulate the accepted norms of the society. To build upon the cavemen reference, a civil society is when the aforementioned cavemen have developed to the point where they rely on each other through a basis of civil norms and laws As Rousseau describes it, â€Å"‘Each of us puts his person and all his power in common under the supreme direction of the general will, and, in our corporate capacity, we receive each member as an indivisible part of the whole. † To establish movement between the state of civil society and the state of nature, individuals must form an understanding between each other. This understanding can be based on an array of different arrangements that can be considered a social contract which involve the gain and loss of ones own primal desire. To refer back to the cavemen example, a civil society is when two cavemen f orm an agreement to assist each other in previously unsociable activities, such as a verbal agreement to fight off a common threat or an economic agreement of trade, but in turn, losing a part of their individuality by leaving the state of nature. These social contracts between individuals are the foundations of our modern societies which include the general will and the sovereign. Though the civil society and social contract do exist in today’s society, Rousseau’s state of nature could never be in existence. In reality, it is impossible to have ever been in a state of nature. This is supported by Rousseau’s idea that at birth, one is born into a society called â€Å"family. † This society is eventually dissolved but children eventually build a social contract with individuals as they grow up and mature. Furthermore, this supports the fact that social contracts and civil societies do exist, even when the state of nature never did. Each day, this is immanent when one forms social bounds with the people around them. Rousseau’s ideas developed from his time period and his life. He was writing this essay during the French Revolution which is in itself a perfect example of the destruction of a social contract between a society and its king and turning into a social contract of the general will of the population to form a new society. Though our time period may be different then those of Rousseau’s, his message will still have a lasting impression on today’s society. Rousseau’s lasting message in, â€Å"The Social Contract,† is not to wane away from social contracts, but rather to analyze what you lose as an individual with each contract you sign. Rousseau firmly states this when he says: â€Å"Man is born free; and everywhere he is in chains. One thinks himself the master of others, and still remains a greater slave then they. †